{"id":175,"date":"2020-08-18T19:23:47","date_gmt":"2020-08-18T20:23:47","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/www.linux-tutorial.info\/?page_id=77"},"modified":"2020-08-22T19:26:01","modified_gmt":"2020-08-22T20:26:01","slug":"this-is-the-page-title-toplevel-9","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"http:\/\/www.linux-tutorial.info\/?page_id=175","title":{"rendered":"Guided Tour"},"content":{"rendered":"\nGuided Tour<\/title>\n<p>\nUnless you are on familiar ground, you usually need a map to get around any large area. To get from one place to another, the best map is a road map (or street map). If you are staying in one general area and are looking for places of interest, you need a tourist map. Because we are staying within the context of Linux and were looking for things of interest, what I am going to give you now is a tourist map of Linux directories.\n<\/p>\n<p>\nIn later chapters, we’ll go into detail about many of the directories that we are going to\nencounter here. For now, I am going to briefly describe where they are and what their functions are. As we get into different sections of the book, it will be a lot easier to move about and know how files relate if we already have an understanding of the basic directory structure.\n<\/p>\n<p>\nOne thing I would like to point out is that (for the most part) the directories of most UNIX systems are laid out according to the functionality of the files and programs within the directory. One enhancement that Linux makes is allowing things to be in more than one place. For example, files that the system uses may be in one place and those that normal users need may be in another place. Linux takes advantage of links to allow the necessary files to be in both places. We’ll talk more about links as we move on.\n<\/p>\n<p>\nOne question people often ask is why it is necessary to know what <i>all<\/i> the directories are for. Well, it isn’t. It isn’t necessary to know them all, just the more important ones. While working in tech support, I have talked numerous times with administrators who were trying to clean up their systems a little. Because they had little experience with <glossary>UNIX<\/glossary> systems, they ended up\nremoving things that they thought were unnecessary, but turned out to be vital for the operation of the system. If they knew more about where things were and what they were for, they wouldn’t have made these mistakes.\n<\/p>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"mc\" text=\"What is the 'Linux Filesystem Standard'?\" \/>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"tf\" text=\"What standard defines the layout of directories and the location of files on a Linux system?\" \/>\n<concept id=\"\" description=\"The 'Linux Filesystem Standard' defines the layout of directories and the location of files on a Linux system.\" \/>\n<p>\nAs we go through these directories, keep in mind that your system may not be like this. I have tried to follow the structure of the <glossary>Linux Filesystem Standard<\/glossary> as well as to find some commonality among the different versions that I’ve installed. On your system, the files and directories may be in a different place, have different names, or may be gone altogether.\n<\/p>\n<p>\nNote that depending on your distribution and the packages you have installed, these files and directories may look different. In addition, although my system used in these examples has every conceivable package installed (well, almost), I did not list all the files and directories I have. I included this list with the intention of giving you a representative overview. In addition, some of the directories are not mentioned in the text, as I cannot say too much more than in the popup in the image map in so little space.\n<\/p>\n<p>\nWith that said, let’s have a look.\n<\/p>\n<concept id=\"\" description=\"The top-most directory is usually referred to as the 'root' directory.\" \/>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"tf\" text=\"The top-most directory is usually referred to as the 'system' directory.\" \/>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"tf\" text=\"The top-most directory is usually referred to as the 'root' directory.\" \/>\n<question id=\"477\" text=\"The top-most directory is usually referred to as what?\" \/>\n<p>\nThe top-most directory is the root directory. In verbal conversation, you say “root\ndirectory” or “slash,” whereas it may be referred to in text as simply “\/.”\n<\/p>\n<p>\nSo when you hear someone talking about the <directory>\/bin<\/directory> directory, you may hear them say “slash\nbin.” This is also extended to other directories, so <directory>\/usr\/bin<\/directory> would be “slash user, slash bin.” However, once you get the feeling and begin to talk “Linux-ese,” you will start talking about the directories as “bin” or “user bin.” Note that ‘usr’ is read as “user.”<\/p>\n<p>\nUnder the root directory, there are several subdirectories with a wide range of functions. The image below shows the key subdirectories of \/. This representation does not depict every <glossary>subdirectory<\/glossary>\nof \/, just the more significant ones that appear with most default installations. In subsequent diagrams, I will continue to limit myself to the most significant directories to keep from losing perspective.\n<\/p>\n<p>\n<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"root_dir_screen.png\" width=592 height=44 border=0 usemap=#root_dir_screen>\n<map name=root_dir_screen>\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"1,1,92,17\" href=\"popup#System.map#Kernel function entry map.\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"1,16,37,31\" href=\"popup#\/bin#Various binary (executable) files.\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"1,31,43,44\" href=\"popup#\/boot#Files the system uses when booting, such as the kernel image.\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"107,1,156,17\" href=\"popup#\/cdrom#Common mount point for CD-ROM drives.\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"108,18,158,31\" href=\"popup#\/data#Common location for shared data. Typically not part of default installation.\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"108,32,159,44\" href=\"popup#\/dev\/#Device nodes\/files.\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"169,0,209,15\" href=\"popup#\/etc#Programs and files typically used for system configuration.\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"169,15,229,31\" href=\"popup#\/floppy#Common mount point for floppy disks.\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"169,34,229,44\" href=\"popup#\/home#Common location for home directories.\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"244,2,276,15\" href=\"popup#\/lib#Shared libraries needed by the operating system as it is running.\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"246,17,335,30\" href=\"popup#\/lost+found#Used to store files after a filesystem check that are no longer associated with any directory.\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"245,31,291,43\" href=\"popup#\/media#Common mount point for various media types.\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"351,1,383,17\" href=\"popup#\/mnt#Tradition mount point for various media type. Often only for temporary use.\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"351,17,382,30\" href=\"popup#\/opt#Optional software.\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"350,32,409,44\" href=\"popup#\/oracle#Common location for Oracle database file.\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"424,0,461,13\" href=\"popup#\/proc#Pseudo-Filesystem containing various information about your running system.\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"424,17,461,29\" href=\"popup#\/root#Typical location of the home directory for the root user. The red color indicates it is a symbolic link.\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"424,33,462,42\" href=\"popup#\/sbin#System binaries (executables).\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"479,1,506,17\" href=\"popup#\/tmp#Temporary storage.\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"475,17,509,29\" href=\"popup#\/usr#Contains user related sub-directories. \">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"479,32,504,42\" href=\"popup#\/var#Files that change (vary) as the system runs, such as log and status files.\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"522,1,589,19\" href=\"popup#\/vmlinuz#Linux kernel image.\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"522,16,588,30\" href=\"popup#\/windows#Common mount point for local Windows filesystems.\">\n<\/map>\n<p>\n<icaption>Image – Listing of a typical root directory. (<b>interactive<\/b>) <\/icaption>\n<concept id=\"82\" description=\"The Linux kernel exists as a real file on your hard disk before it is loaded into memory.\" \/>\n<concept id=\"\" description=\"The file \/boot\/vmlinuz represents the Linux kernel.\" \/>\n<question id=\"20\" text=\"What file represents the linux kernel?\" \/>\n<p>\nOne of these files, one could say, is the single <i>most<\/i> important file: <file type=\"\">vmlinuz<\/file>. This file is the <glossary>operating system<\/glossary>\nproper. It contains all the functions that make everything go. When\nreferring to the file on the hard disk, one refers to <file type=\"\">\/vmlinuz<\/file>, whereas the in-memory, executing version is referred to as the <em>kernel<\/em>.\n<\/p>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"mc\" text=\"What is typically found in the \/bin directory?\" \/>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"tf\" text=\"The \/bin directory typically contains administration-related binaries.\" \/>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"tf\" text=\"The \/bin directory typically contains user-related binaries.\" \/>\n<p>\nThe first directory we get to is <directory>\/bin<\/directory>. Its name is derived from the word “<b>bin<\/b>ary.” Often, the word “binary” is used to\nrefer to executable programs or other files that contains non-readable\ncharacters. The <directory>\/bin<\/directory> directory is where many of the system-related binaries are kept, hence the name. Although several of the files in this directory are used for administrative purposes and cannot be run by normal users, everyone has read\npermission on this directory, so you can at least see what the directory contains.\n<\/p>\n<concept id=\"\" description=\"You typically find the most common programs in the \/bin directory.\" \/>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"mc\" text=\"In which directory would you typically find the most common programs?\" \/>\n<p>\nNote that binaries programs exist in many other directories, but the most common or frequently used ones are found in <directory>\/bin<\/directory>. Sometimes the <directory>\/bin<\/directory> is a <glossary>symbolic link<\/glossary> to <directory>\/usr\/bin<\/directory>. We’ll get into details about <directory>\/usr\/bin<\/directory> shortly.\n<\/p>\n<concept id=\"\" description=\"During boot-up, Linux uses files in the \/boot directory.\" \/>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"tf\" text=\"During boot-up, Linux typically uses files in the \/boot directory.\" \/>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"tf\" text=\"During boot-up, Linux typically uses files in what directory?\" \/>\n<question id=\"19\" text=\"During boot-up, Linux uses files in what directory?\" \/>\n<p>\nThe <directory>\/boot<\/directory> directory is used to <glossary>boot<\/glossary>\nthe system. There are several files here that the system uses at different times during the <glossary>boot<\/glossary>\nprocess. For example, the files <file type=\"\">\/boot\/boot.????<\/file> are copies\nof the original <glossary>boot sector<\/glossary>\nfrom your hard disk. (for example <file type=\"\">boot.0300<\/file>) Files ending in .b are “<glossary>chain loaders<\/glossary>,” secondary loaders that the system uses to <glossary>boot<\/glossary> the various operating systems that you specify.\n<\/p>\n<concept id=\"\" description=\"Device nodes are located in the \/dev directory.\" \/>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"mc\" text=\"What is typically found in the \/dev directory?\" \/>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"tf\" text=\"Device nodes are located in the \/devices directory.\" \/>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"mc\" text=\"Device nodes are located in which directory?\" \/>\n<p>\nThe <directory>\/dev<\/directory> directory contains the <glossary>device nodes<\/glossary>.\nAs I mentioned in our previous <site id=\"1\">discussion on operating system basics<\/site>, device files are\nthe way both the <glossary>operating system<\/glossary> and users gain access to\nthe hardware. Every device has at least one device file associated with it. If it doesn’t, you can’t gain access to it. We’ll get into more detail on\nindividual device files <site id=\"93\">later<\/site>.\n<\/p>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"mc\" text=\"What is typically found in the \/etc directory?\" \/>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"tf\" text=\"The \/etc directory typically contains files and programs that are used for system configuration.\" \/>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"mc\" text=\"In what directory are you likely to find non-changing\/static configuration information?\" \/>\n<concept id=\"\" description=\"The \/etc directory typically contains tains files and programs that are used for system configuration.\" \/>\n<p>\nThe <directory>\/etc<\/directory> directory contains files and programs that are used for system configuration. Its name comes from the common abbreviation <em>etc.<\/em>, for “et cetera”, meaning “and so on.” This seems to come from the fact that on many systems, <directory>\/etc<\/directory> contains files that don’t seem to fit elsewhere.\n<\/p>\n<concept id=\"\" description=\"Many programs stored their configuration information in files or sub-directories under \/etc\/.\" \/>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"tf\" text=\"Many programs stored their configuration information in files or sub-directories under \/sysconf.\" \/>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"mc\" text=\"Many programs commonly store their configuration information in which directory?\" \/>\n<p>\nOver the years the <directory>\/etc<\/directory> directory has evolved to the point where it is the place where a large number of programs stored their configuration files and many of the other files they use while in operation.\n<\/p>\n<concept id=\"\" description=\"There is no universal standard for the file extension used by configuration files.\" \/>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"tf\" text=\"There is no universal standard for the file extension used by configuration files.\" \/>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"tf\" text=\"All confiration-related files under \/etc end with the extension .conf.\" \/>\n<p>\nUnder <directory>\/etc<\/directory> are several subdirectories of varying importance to both administrators and users.\nThe following image shows a number of important sub-directories. Depending on what software you have installed you may not have some of these or you may have many more not listed. Unfortunately, there are few standards as to any specific file extension to use for configuration files. Sometimes the program uses .conf, other times .ini and other times nothing at all.\n<\/p>\n<p>\n<div align=\"center\">\n<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"etc_dir_screen.png\" width=694 height=48 border=0 usemap=#etc_dir_screen_map>\n<\/div>\n<map name=etc_dir_screen_map>\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"1,1,96,14\" href=\"popup#\/etc\/SuSEconfig#Files used by the SuSEconfig utility.\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"2,15,42,29\" href=\"popup#\/etc\/X11#Contains configuration files for the X-Windowing system.\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"0,31,61,45\" href=\"popup#\/etc\/cron.d#Configuration files used by the cron daemon.\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"109,1,205,15\" href=\"popup#\/etc\/cron.daily#Configuration files used by the cron daemon to conduct daily maintenance tasks.\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"108,16,211,29\" href=\"popup#\/etc\/cron.hourly#Configuration files used by the cron daemon to conduct hourly maintenance tasks.\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"111,30,219,45\" href=\"popup#\/etc\/cron.monthly#Configuration files used by the cron daemon to conduct monthly maintenance tasks.\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"237,1,337,15\" href=\"popup#\/etc\/cron.weekly#Configuration files used by the cron daemon to conduct weekly maintenance tasks.\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"235,17,276,27\" href=\"popup#\/etc\/cups#Files used by the Common Unix Printing System.\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"237,31,301,45\" href=\"popup#\/etc\/default#Various system defaults.\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"354,2,402,14\" href=\"popup#\/etc\/httpd#Files used by the HTTP daemon.\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"353,15,413,30\" href=\"popup#\/etc\/init.d#Scripts started by the system (init) when switching run-levels, such as booting or shutting down.\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"352,31,393,43\" href=\"popup#\/etc\/opt#Files used by various optional software.\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"425,1,473,14\" href=\"popup#\/etc\/pam#Files used by the Pluggable Authentication Modules\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"426,17,513,30\" href=\"popup#\/etc\/profile.d#Default profiles for various shells.\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"426,30,527,46\" href=\"popup#\/etc\/rc.config.d#Configuration files used by various init scripts.\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"542,0,590,14\" href=\"popup#\/etc\/samba#Files used by SAMBA.\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"541,17,616,29\" href=\"popup#\/etc\/security#Configuration files for various security related programs.\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"540,30,587,45\" href=\"popup#\/etc\/skel#Various files used as defaults when new users are created.\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"632,1,663,15\" href=\"popup#\/etc\/ssh#Files used by the secure shell.\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"630,18,692,31\" href=\"popup#\/etc\/vmware#Files used by VMWare.\">\n<\/map>\n<p>\n<icaption>Image – Listing of a key directories under the \/etc directory. (<b>interactive<\/b>) <\/icaption>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"mc\" text=\"File for the Linux loader lilo are found in which directory?\" \/>\n<p>\nIn some Linux distributions you will find the <directory>\/etc\/lilo<\/directory> directory, which is used for the Linux\nloader (<command>lilo<\/command>). This directory contains a single file, install, which is a link to <command>\/sbin\/lilo<\/command>. This\nfile is used (among other things) to install the <glossary>boot<\/glossary> configuration options. On some systems, the lilo configuration file (<file type=\"\">lilo.conf<\/file>) is found directly in the <command>\/etc<\/command> directory We’ll get into this more in the section on <site id=\"63\">starting and stopping your system.<\/site>\n<\/p>\n<concept id=\"\" description=\"Programs or scripts to be run daily by cron are kept in the \/etc\/cron.daily directory.\" \/>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"tf\" text=\"The \/etc\/cron.monthly directory contains the monthly archive of all cron activity on your system.\" \/>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"mc\" text=\"The system-wide crontab is located in which file?\" \/>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"mc\" text=\"What is kept in the \/etc\/cron.* directories?\" \/>\n<p>\nThere several directories named <directory>\/etc\/cron*<\/directory>. As you might quess these are used by the <glossary>cron<\/glossary> daemon. The <directory>\/etc\/cron.d <\/directory>contains configuration files used by cron.\nTypically what is here are various system related cron jobs, such as \/etc\/cron.d\/seccheck,\nwhich does various security checks. The directories <directory>\/etc\/cron.hourly<\/directory>, <directory>\/etc\/cron.daily<\/directory>, <directory>\/etc\/cron.weekly<\/directory>, <directory>\/etc\/cron.monthly<\/directory>\ncontain files with cron jobs which\nrun hourly, daily, weekly and monthly, respectively. There is a cron job listed in\nsystem-wide <file type=\"\">\/etc\/crontab<\/file> that runs the program <command>\/usr\/lib\/cron\/run-crons<\/command>, which checks the other files.\n<\/p>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"mc\" text=\"What is typically found in the \/etc\/init.d directory?\" \/>\n<question id=\"22\" text=\"System start-up scripts are kept in which directory?\" \/>\n<concept id=\"\" description=\"System start-up scripts are kept in the \/etc\/init.d directory.\" \/>\n<p>\nThe <directory>\/etc\/init.d<\/directory> directory contains scripts that the system uses when starting up or shutting down. Which files are read depends on whether the system is being started or shut down. We’ll talk more about these directories and their\nassociated files in the\n<tutorial id=67> section on starting up and shutting down the system<\/tutorial>.\nYou may also find that these files are located in <directory>\/etc\/rc.d<\/directory>. On SuSE, <directory>\/etc\/rc.d<\/directory> is a symbolic link to <directory>\/etc\/init.d<\/directory>.\n<\/p>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"mc\" text=\"What is typically found in the \/etc\/skel directory?\" \/>\n<concept id=\"\" description=\"The \/etc\/skel directory is a 'skeleton' used to populate a new user's home directory.\" \/>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"mc\" text=\"Which directory is a 'skeleton' used to populate a new user's home directory?\" \/>\n<p>\nThe <directory>\/etc\/skel<\/directory> directory is used when you create a new user with the adduser command. This is the\n“skeleton” of files that is copied to the user’s <glossary>home directory<\/glossary>\nwhen it’s created (hence the name “skel”). If you want to ensure that each user gets other files at startup, place them\nin here. For example, you may want everyone to have a configuration file for <command>vi<\/command> (.exrc) or for mail (.mailrc).\n<\/p>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"mc\" text=\"What is typically found in the \/etc\/sysconfig directory?\" \/>\n<concept id=\"\" description=\"Default system configuration information is stored in the \/etc\/sysconfig or \/etc\/rc.config.d directory.\" \/>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"mc\" text=\"Default system configuration information is stored in what directory?\" \/>\n<p>\nDepending on your Linux distribution, either the <directory>\/etc\/sysconfig<\/directory> or\n<directory>\/etc\/rc.config.d<\/directory> directory contains default system configuration information. For example, the <file type=\"\">keyboard<\/file> file defines which keyboard table is to be used and the <glossary>network<\/glossary>\nfile contains network parameters, such as the <glossary>hostname<\/glossary>.\n<\/p>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"mc\" text=\"What is typically found in the \/etc\/pam.d directory?\" \/>\n<concept id=\"\" description=\"The \/etc\/pam.d directory contains configuration files used by the Pluggable Authentication Modules\" \/>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"mc\" text=\"Which directory contains configuration files used by the Pluggable Authentication Modules?\" \/>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"mc\" text=\"What are Pluggable Authentication Modules?\" \/>\n<p>\nThe <directory>\/etc\/pam.d<\/directory> directory contains configuration files used by the <glossary>Pluggable Authentication Modules<\/glossary> (PAM).\nPAM is a system of libraries that are responsible for authentication tasks of applications and services on your system.\nThese libraries provide an <glossary>Application Programming Interface<\/glossary> (API) allowing for a standardization of authorization functions. Previously, where necessary each program did its own authorization\/authentication. With PAM, a\nsingle set of configuration files allows for a more consistent security policy. In some cases, an <file type=\"\">\/etc\/pam.conf<\/file> file is used instead of the <directory>\/etc\/pam.d <\/directory>directory.\n<\/p>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"mc\" text=\"What is typically found in the \/etc\/profile.d directory?\" \/>\n<concept id=\"\" description=\"The \/etc\/profile.d directory contains default configuration for many of the shells.\" \/>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"mc\" text=\"Which directory contains default configuration for many of the various shells?\" \/>\n<p>\nThe <directory>\/etc\/profile.d<\/directory> directory contains default configuration for many of the <glossary>shells<\/glossary> that Linux provides. As we talk about in the\n<tutorial id=15>section on shells<\/tutorial>, each shell has an <glossary>environment<\/glossary> which contains a number of different characteristics. Many of the defaults are defined in the files under <directory>\/etc\/profile.d<\/directory>. The name of each file gives an indication of the appropriate <glossary>shell<\/glossary>.\n<\/p>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"mc\" text=\"What is typically found in the \/etc\/security directory?\" \/>\n<concept id=\"\" description=\"The \/etc\/security directory contains security related configurations files.\" \/>\n<concept id=\"\" description=\"The \/etc\/security directory contains security related configurations files.\" \/>\n<concept id=\"\" description=\"The \/etc\/security\/limits.conf file contains various security-related system limits.\" \/>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"mc\" text=\"Which directory contains security related configurations files?\" \/>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"mc\" text=\"Which file typically contains various security-related system limits?\" \/>\n<p>\nThe <directory>\/etc\/security<\/directory> directory contains security related configurations files. Whereas PAM concerns itself with the methods\nused to authenticate any given user, the files under <directory>\/etc\/security<\/directory> are concerned with just what a user can or cannot do.\nFor example, the file <file type=\"\">\/etc\/security\/access.conf<\/file> is a list of what users are allowed to login and\nfrom what <glossary>host<\/glossary> (for example, using <command>telnet<\/command>). The <file type=\"\">\/etc\/security\/limits.conf<\/file>\ncontains various system limits, such as maximum number of processes. (Yes, these are really related to security!)<\/p>\n<p>\nMoving back up to the root directory, we next find <directory>\/home<\/directory>. As its name implies, this is the default location for user’s home directories. However, as we’ll talk about later, you can have the home directory anywhere.\n<\/p>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"mc\" text=\"What is typically found in the lost+found directory?\" \/>\n<concept id=\"\" description=\"The \/lost+found directory on each filesystem is used to store files that are no longer associated with a directory.\" \/>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"tf\" text=\"The \/lost+found directory on each filesystem is used to store files that are no longer associated with a directory.\" \/>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"mc\" text=\"When filesystems are clean (checked), where do files end up that are not associated with a directory.\" \/>\n<p>\nThe <directory>\/lost+found<\/directory> directory is used to store files that are no longer\nassociated with a directory. These are files that have no home and are,\ntherefore, lost. Often, if your system crashes and the <glossary>filesystem<\/glossary>\nis cleaned when it reboots, the system can save much of the data and the files will end up\nhere. Note that a lost+found directory is created automatically for <em>each<\/em>\nfilesystem you create. We’ll get into more detail about this in the section on\nfilesystems.<\/p>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"mc\" text=\"What is typically found in the \/lib directory?\" \/>\n<concept id=\"\" description=\"The \/lib directory contains libraries needed by the operating system as it is running.\" \/>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"mc\" text=\"Which directory contains libraries needed by the operating system as it is running?\" \/>\n<p>\nThe <directory>\/lib<\/directory> directory (for <glossary>library<\/glossary>) contains the\nlibraries needed by the <glossary>operating system<\/glossary>\nas it is running. You will also find several sub directories.<\/p>\n<concept id=\"83\" description=\"The \/proc filesystem contains a great deal of information about your running system.\" \/>\n<question id=\"21\" text=\"Information on the running system is found in what directory?\" \/>\n<p>\nThe <directory>\/proc<\/directory> directory takes a little while to get used to, especially if you come from a non-UNIX world or have used a version of\n<glossary>UNIX<\/glossary> without this directory. This is a “pseudo-filesystem”\nthat is used to access information in the running system. Rather than having you access kernel memory directly (i.e., through the special device <device>\/dev\/kmem<\/device>), you can access the files within this\ndirectory. There are directories for every running process as well. We will get into more detail\nabout this when we talk about <site id=\"167\"> monitoring your system<\/site>.\nIf you are curious now, check out the <command>proc<\/command>(8) man-page.\n<\/p>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"mc\" text=\"What is typically found in the \/root directory?\" \/>\n<concept id=\"\" description=\"The \/root directory is typically the home directory for the root user.\" \/>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"tf\" text=\"The \/root directory is typically the home directory for the root user.\" \/>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"mc\" text=\"Which directory is typically the home directory for the root user?\" \/>\n<p>\nThe <directory>\/root<\/directory> directory is the <glossary>home directory<\/glossary>\nfor the user root. This is different from many UNIX dialects that have the root’s <glossary>home directory<\/glossary> directly in \/. With some Linux distributions, the \/root directory is actually a <glossary>symbolic link<\/glossary> to \/home\/root.\n<\/p>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"tf\" text=\"Programs in the \/sbin directory can only be run by the system administrator.\" \/>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"mc\" text=\"In which directory are you likely to find programs which can only be run by the system administrator.\" \/>\n<concept id=\"\" description=\"Binaries that are usually used by the system administrator are typically kept in the \/sbin directory.\" \/>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"mc\" text=\"Binaries that are usually used by the system administrator are typically kept in which directory?\" \/>\n<p>\nThe <directory>\/sbin<\/directory> directory contains programs that are used (more or less) to administer the system. In other words, the <b>s<\/b>ystem <b>bin<\/b>aries.\nMany documentation sources say that this is <i>only<\/i> for system administrators. However, most of these files are executable by normal users, as well. Whether the support files or <glossary>device nodes<\/glossary> are accessible is another matter. If a normal user cannot access the device nodes or other files, the program won’t run.\n<\/p>\n<p>\nThe <directory>\/usr<\/directory> directory contains many user-related subdirectories. (Note the ‘e’ is missing from “user”). In general, one can say that the directories and\nfiles under <directory>\/usr<\/directory> are used by and related to users. There are programs and utilities here that users use on a daily basis. On many older systems, <directory>\/usr<\/directory> is where users have their <glossary>home directory<\/glossary>. The figure below shows what the sub-directories of \/usr would look like graphically. <\/p>\n<p>\n<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"usr_dir_screen.png\" width=657 height=41 border=0 usemap=#usr_dir_screen_map>\n<\/div>\n<map name=usr_dir_screen_map>\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"0,3,33,16\" href=\"popup#\/usr\/X11#Contains files related to the X-Windowing System. Usually a symbolic link to the directory for the specific release (i.e. X11R6).\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"2,21,49,33\" href=\"popup#\/usr\/X11#Contains files related to the X-Windowing System. In this example, there it contains files for Release 6 (R6).\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"65,5,97,17\" href=\"popup#\/usr\/bin#Contains user-related binaries (executables).\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"62,20,104,34\" href=\"popup#\/usr\/dict#Contains files used my dictionary programs (e.g. word lists).\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"118,5,149,20\" HREF=\"popup#\/usr\/doc#Documentation for <i>some<\/i> applications. Most documentation is now in \/usr\/share\/doc.”>\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"116,21,152,34\" href=\"popup#\/usr\/etc#User-related system configuration files. Analog to the \/etc directory.\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"164,3,259,17\" href=\"popup#\/usr\/i486-linux#i486-Linux specifc binaries.\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"164,21,302,33\" href=\"popup#\/usr\/i486-linux#i486-Linux binaries specifically for SuSE Linux.\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"317,4,384,17\" href=\"popup#\/usr\/include#Contains files that both the kernel needs when being re-created and programs need when being compiled.\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"317,18,359,32\" href=\"popup#\/usr\/lib#Shared libraries used primarily by user-related programms.\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"399,5,445,17\" HREF=\"popup#\/usr\/local#Typically contains various files that are not part of the normal Linux distribution or any addition packages. Often added by the <i>local<\/i> system administrator, but often added by some packages.”>\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"401,18,490,32\" href=\"popup#\/usr\/lost+found#Used to store files after a filesystem check that are no longer associated with any directory. The lost+found directory is created by the system when it creates a file system. On my system, \/usr is on a seperate filesystem\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"502,6,537,19\" href=\"popup#\/usr\/man#Man-pages and related file.\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"507,20,545,34\" href=\"popup#\/usr\/sbin#User-related system binaries (executables).\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"557,4,609,17\" href=\"popup#\/usr\/share#Application configuration files that are shared between users.\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"560,22,609,33\" href=\"popup#\/usr\/spool#Spool directory for things like the printer, email, cron, and so forth.\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"624,4,653,18\" href=\"popup#\/usr\/src#Kernel and application source files.\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"624,20,653,33\" href=\"popup#\/usr\/tmp#Temporary files.\"> <\/map> <p>\n<icaption>Image – Listing of a key directories under the \/usr directory. (<b>interactive<\/b>) <\/icaption>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"tf\" text=\"Programs in the \/usr\/bin directory are typically user related.\" \/>\n<p>\nWhere <directory>\/bin<\/directory> contains\nprograms that are used by both users and administrators, <directory>\/usr\/bin<\/directory> contains files that are almost exclusively used by users. (However, like everything in <glossary>UNIX<\/glossary>,\nthere are exceptions.) Here again, the <directory>bin<\/directory> directory contains\nbinary files. In general, you can say the the programs and utilities that all users\nmore or less <strong>require<\/strong> are stored in <directory>bin<\/directory>, whereas the “nice-to-have” programs and utilities are stored in <directory>\/usr\/bin<\/directory>. Programs and utilities needs for administrative tasks are stored in <directory>\/sbin<\/directory>. Note that it is common to seperate files like this, but it is not an absolute.\n<\/p>\n<p>\nThe <directory>\/usr\/adm<\/directory> directory contains mostly administrative data. The\nname “adm” comes from “administration,” which is no wonder\nconsidering this contains a lot of the administrative information that relates\nto users. This may be a <glossary>symbolic link<\/glossary>\nto the <directory>\/var <\/directory>directory. Note that this directory does not exist on many systems.\n<\/p>\n<p>\nThe <directory>\/usr\/include<\/directory> directory and its various subdirectories contain all the include files. These contain information that is needed both by the <glossary>kernel<\/glossary> when it is being recreated and by programs when they are being compiled. For normal users and even most system administrators, the information\nhere is more a place to get one’s curiosity satisfied. (For those of you who know that this is dramatic over-simplification, all I can say is that you already know what this directory is for anyway.)\n<\/p>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"mc\" text=\"Which directory contains the kernel source code?\" \/>\n<p>\nThe <directory>\/usr\/src<\/directory> directory contains the source code for the\n<tutorial id=82>Linux kernel<\/tutorial>, kernel modules and for any program that you specifically install. Although this directory existed on every Linux machine I have ever seen, it may be empty depending on what packages are installed. It the kernel source code is installed, it will reside in a sub-directory based on the kernel version, for example\nlinux-2.6.13-15.<\/p>\n<concept id=\"\" description=\"The files containing Many system parameters and default values of various variables that are needed when compiling a new kernel are stored in \/usr\/src\/linux\/include\" \/>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"mc\" text=\"The files containing Many system parameters and default values of various variables that are needed when compiling a new kernel are stored in which directory?\" \/>\n<p>\nMany system parameters and default values of various variables that are needed when\ncompiling a new kernel are stored inside the files underneath <directory>\/usr\/src\/linux\/include<\/directory>. Because of the information provided in many of the files, I will be making reference to them through the site. Rather than spelling out the <glossary>full path<\/glossary>\nof the directory, I will make a reference to the files\nrelative to the <directory>\/usr\/src\/linux\/include<\/directory> directory, the same way that it is done in C source code. For example, when I refer to something like\n<linux\/user.h>, I mean the <glossary>full path<\/glossary>\n<file type=\"\">\/usr\/src\/linux\/include\/linux\/user.h<\/file>.\nWhen you see something enclosed in angled brackets like this, you can make the\nexpansion yourself. <\/p>\n<concept id=\"\" description=\"Library files used by user-related programs are typically stored in \/usr\/lib\" \/>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"mc\" text=\"Library files used by user-related programs are typically stored in which directory?\" \/>\n<p>\nThe <directory>\/usr\/lib<\/directory> directory is difficult to explain. We\ncould say that it contains the user-related <glossary>library<\/glossary> files (based on its name).\nHowever, that still does not accurately describe the complete contents. One\nthing it contains is the library files that are less general than those you find\nin <directory>\/lib<\/directory>. This directory contains many of the systemwide configuration files for user-level programs such as perl and emacs.\n<\/p>\n<p>\nIf you have switched to the more secure npasswd program, the\n<directory>\/usr\/lib\/npasswd<\/directory> directory is used to contain some configuration\ninformation.\n<\/p>\n<p>\nWhen configuring <glossary>UUCP<\/glossary>, all the necessary files are contained in the\n<directory>\/usr\/lib\/uucp <\/directory>directory. Not only are the configuration files here, but this is also home for most of the <glossary>UUCP<\/glossary>\nprograms. UUCP (Unix-to-Unix Copy) is a package\nthat allows you to transfer files and communicate with remote systems using\nserial lines. We’ll talk in more detail about this directory in the\n<site id=\"141\">section on networking<\/site>.\n<\/p>\n<p>\nThere are typically many more directories under <directory>\/usr\/lib<\/directory>.\nMost are related to user programs and operations. We’ll get to some of them as we move along.\n<\/p>\n<p>\nThe directory <directory>\/usr\/X11R6<\/directory> contains all the\n<glossary>X<\/glossary> Windows System files. This makes upgrading to newer releases\nof <glossary>X<\/glossary> much easier as the files are not spread out over the entire system. If you have an older version of Linux, you might still have X11R5 or if a newer release comes out you might have X11R7. To simplify things even further, the directory\n<directory>\/usr\/X1<\/directory>1 is what many things look at instead. This is then linked to the appropriate directory (i.e., <directory>\/usr\/X11R6<\/directory>, <directory>\/usr\/X11R5<\/directory>).\n<\/p>\n<p>\nUnderneath this\ndirectory are the subdirectories <directory>bin<\/directory>, <directory>lib<\/directory>, and <directory>man<\/directory>, which have the same\nfunctionality as those under <directory>\/usr<\/directory>. In most cases, links in other directories\npoint here. For example, you should have a directory <directory>\/usr\/bin\/X11<\/directory>. This is a\nsymbolic link to the directory <directory>\/usr\/X11R6\/bin<\/directory>. The directory <directory>\/usr\/lib\/X11<\/directory> is a\nsymbolic link to <directory>\/usr\/X11R6\/lib<\/directory>. The reason for this is to maintain the\ndirectory structure, but still make upgrading easy. When X11R7 comes out, all\nthat you need to do is make the links point to the X11R7 directories and not\ncopy the individual files.\n<\/p>\n<concept id=\"\" description=\"System or administration-related binaries are typically stored in the \/sbin and \/usr\/sbin directories.\" \/>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"mc\" text=\"System or administration-related binaries are typically stored in which two directories.\" \/>\n<p>\nNext, <directory>\/usr\/sbin<\/directory>contains more system binaries,\nincluding the <glossary>daemon<\/glossary>\nprograms that run in the background. In some UNIX\ndialects, these files may be in <directory>\/etc<\/directory>.\n<\/p>\n<concept id=\"\" description=\"Binaries and libraries that are specific\/unique to your system are stored in the \/usr\/local\" \/>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"mc\" text=\"Binaries and libraries that are specific\/unique to your system are stored in which directory?\" \/>\n<p>\nMoving back up to the <directory>\/usr<\/directory>\ndirectory, we find the <directory>\/usr\/local<\/directory> sub-directory. This may or may not contain anything. In fact, there are no rules governing its contents. It is designed to contain programs, data files, and other information that is specific or even unique to your <em>local<\/em> system, hence the name. There is often a <directory>bin<\/directory> directory that contains local\nprograms and a <directory>lib<\/directory> directory that contains data files or libraries used by the programs in <directory>\/usr\/local\/bin<\/directory>.\n<\/p>\n<p>\nNote that <em>many<\/em> packages that you compile and install from source code end up in the <directory>\/usr\/local<\/directory> by default. Although you can change this when you compile the package and it is not always the case, you need to be aware of it. The safest thing to say is that typically applications installed with the Linux distribution are <strong>not<\/strong> installed into <directory>\/usr\/local<\/directory>.\n<\/p>\n<p>\nAlso in the <directory>\/usr<\/directory> directory you may find <directory>\/usr\/man<\/directory>. This\nis where the man-pages and their respective indices are kept. This directory\ncontains the index files, which you can search through to find a command you are\nlooking for. You can also create and store your own manual pages here. The\n<directory>\/usr\/info<\/directory> and <directory>\/usr\/doc<\/directory> directories contain GNU Info documents and other documentation files.\n<\/p>\n<concept id=\"\" description=\"Configuration files, documentation and other things that are used by multiple programms are typically stored in the \/usr\/share directory.\" \/>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"mc\" text=\"Configuration files, documentation and other things that are used by multiple programms are typically stored in which directory?\" \/>\n<p>\nOn newer distributions, the man-pages and doc files are typically located underneath <directory>\/usr\/share<\/directory>. The <directory>\/usr\/share<\/directory> contains files that are “shared” among multiple applications, hence the name.\n<\/p>\n<concept id=\"\" description=\"The files used to configure the system console keyboard are located in the \/usr\/share\/kbd directory.\" \/>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"mc\" text=\"The files used to configure the system console keyboard are located in which directory?\" \/>\n<p>\nThe <directory>\/usr\/share\/kbd<\/directory>\ndirectory contains files that are used to configure the system console keyboard.\nThrough these files, you can configure your keyboard to accommodate one of\nseveral different languages. You can even configure it for dialects of the same\nlanguage, such as the German keyboard as used in Switzerland or Germany. You can\nalso change these files to create a totally new keyboard layout, such as the\nDvorak. Note that it is possible that on older distributions you will find these files underneath <directory>\/usr\/lib\/kbd<\/directory>.\n<\/p>\n<concept id=\"\" description=\"The files that describe how various terminals behave are stored in the \/usr\/share\/terminfo directory.\" \/>\n<concept id=\"\" description=\"Older programms often use termcap to define how specific terminal behave.\" \/>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"mc\" text=\"The files that describe how various terminals behave are stored in which directory?\" \/>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"mc\" text=\"What do older programms often use to define how specific terminal behave?\" \/>\n<p>\nThe <directory>\/usr\/share\/terminfo<\/directory> directory contains both the source\nfiles and compiled versions of the <command>terminfo<\/command> database. Terminfo is the mechanism\nby which the system can work with so many different types of terminals and know\nwhich key is being pressed. For more information, see the <command>terminfo<\/command>(5) <glossary>man-page<\/glossary>. On older distributions you will find these files underneath <directory>\/usr\/lib\/terminfo<\/directory>. Some older program use the ther <glossary>termcap<\/glossary> (terminal capabilties) mechanism. The termcap configuration file is <file type=\"\">\/etc\/termcap<\/file>\n<\/p>\n<p>\n<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"var_dir.png\" width=546 height=29 border=0 usemap=\"#var_dir_map\">\n<map name=\"var_dir_map\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"46,13,47,14\" href=\"popup#\/var\/X11R6#Varying files related to the X-Windowing system\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"0,16,36,27\" href=\"popup#\/var\/adm#Administration related files.\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"60,2,113,15\" href=\"popup#\/var\/cache#Cached files, such as those for a web server.\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"60,16,129,28\" href=\"popup#\/var\/deliver#Files related to the deliver program.\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"140,3,192,17\" href=\"popup#\/var\/games#Varying files related to games.\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"145,16,178,29\" href=\"popup#\/var\/lib#\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"207,1,246,14\" href=\"popup#\/var\/lock#Lock files.\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"207,15,240,29\" href=\"popup#\/var\/log#System log files.\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"260,0,305,15\" href=\"popup#\/var\/mail#Files related to email.\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"260,15,305,29\" href=\"popup#\/var\/named#Files related to the DNS daemon named.\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"323,0,355,15\" href=\"popup#\/var\/opt#Varying files for optional software.\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"324,13,356,28\" href=\"popup#\/var\/run#\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"366,2,416,15\" href=\"popup#\/var\/spool#\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"368,16,416,28\" href=\"popup#\/var\/squid#\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"433,1,466,14\" href=\"popup#\/var\/tmp#\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"431,17,506,28\" href=\"popup#\/var\/ucd-snmp#\">\n<area shape=\"RECT\" coords=\"516,2,544,16\" href=\"popup#\/var\/yp#\">\n<\/p>\n<concept id=\"\" description=\"Files that vary as the system is running are typically stored in the \/var directory.\" \/>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"mc\" text=\"Files that vary as the system is running are typically stored in which directory?\" \/>\n<p>\nThe <directory>\/var<\/directory> directory contains files that\n<b>var<\/b>y as the system is running, such as log files. This was originally intended to be used when the \/usr directory is shared across multiple systems. In such a case, you\ndon’t want things like the mail or print spoolers to be shared.\n<\/p>\n<concept id=\"\" description=\"The files you to ensure that programs do not 'collide' (i.e. try to access the same resources) are typically stored in the \/var\/lock directory.\" \/>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"mc\" text=\"The files you to ensure that programs do not 'collide' (i.e. try to access the same resources) are typically stored in which directory?\" \/>\n<p>\nMany system “lock” files are kept in <directory>\/var\/lock<\/directory>. These are used to indicate that one program or another is currently using a particular file or maybe even a device. If other programs are written to check in here first, you don’t have collisions.\n<\/p>\n<concept id=\"\" description=\"System logs are kept in the \/var\/log directory.\" \/>\n<question id=\"23\" text=\"System logs are kept in the \/var\/adm directory.\" \/>\n<question id=\"\" text=\"System logs are kept in which directory.\" \/>\n<p>\nAs you might guess, the <directory>\/var\/log<\/directory> directory contains log files. The <directory>\/var\/run<\/directory> contains information that is valid until the system is rebooted. For example, the process\nID of the inetd <glossary>daemon<\/glossary>\ncan be found here. It is often important to know this\ninformation when changes are made to the system and storing them here makes them\nquickly accessible.\n<\/p>\n<concept id=\"\" description=\"The 'work' or 'spool' files that many programs use are stored in the \/var\/spool directory.\" \/>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"mc\" text=\"The 'work' or 'spool' files that many programs use are stored in which directory?\" \/>\n<p>\nThe <directory>\/var\/spool<\/directory> directory is the place where many\ndifferent kinds of files are stored temporarily. The sub-directories serve as a kind of\nholding area for various applications and system <glossary>daemons<\/glossary> programs.\nThe word “spool” is an acronym for <b>s<\/b>imultaneous <b>p<\/b>eripheral <b>o<\/b>peration\n<b>o<\/b>ff-<b>l<\/b>ine, the process whereby jobs destined for some peripheral\n(printer, <glossary>modem<\/glossary>, etc.) are queued to be processed later. This may be a link to <directory>\/usr\/spool<\/directory> or on some older systems only the <directory>\/usr\/spool<\/directory> is used. The <directory>\/usr\/spool\/lp<\/directory> directory not only contains\nprint jobs as they are waiting to be printed, it also contains the configuration\nfiles for the printers.\n<\/p>\n<p>\nThe <file type=\"\">\/var\/yp<\/file> directory contains the changing files\nthat are used with the Network Information Service (NIS), also know as Yellow\nPages, or YP.\n<\/p>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"mc\" text=\"Which directory is the primary location for log files?\" \/>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"tf\" text=\"By default all applications write their log files in \/var\/log.\" \/>\n<question id=\"\" type=\"tf\" text=\"New distributions store log files in \/var\/adm.\" \/>\n<p>\nAs I mentioned before, the <directory>\/usr\/adm<\/directory> directory is often a link to\n<directory>\/var\/adm<\/directory>. There are several key log files stored here. Perhaps, the most important is the <file type=\"\">messages<\/file> file that contains all the system service, <glossary>kernel<\/glossary>, and device driver messages. This is where the system typically logs messages from the <command>syslogd<\/command> daemon. Note that you can configured <command>syslogd<\/command> to write the messages to other places.\n<\/p>\n<p>\nYou will typically find that there are many different log files located in <directory>\/var\/log<\/directory>. If you are not sure where a particular process is logging information, then this is the place to look. In some cases, the log files are stored in sub-directories.\n<\/p>\n<p>\nThere were many directories that I skipped, as I said I would at\nthe beginning of this section. Think about the comparison that I made to a\ntourist map. We visited all the museums, 200-year-old churches, and fancy\nrestaurants, but I didn’t show you where the office of city planning was.\nGranted, such offices are necessary for a large city, but you really don’t care\nabout them when you’re touring the city; just as there are certain directories\nand files that are not necessary to appreciate and understand the Linux\ndirectory structure.\n<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Guided Tour Unless you are on familiar ground, you usually need a map to get around any large area. To get from one place to another, the best map is a road map (or street map). If you are staying … <a href=\"http:\/\/www.linux-tutorial.info\/?page_id=175\">Continue reading <span class=\"meta-nav\">→<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-175","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"http:\/\/www.linux-tutorial.info\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/pages\/175","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"http:\/\/www.linux-tutorial.info\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"http:\/\/www.linux-tutorial.info\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"http:\/\/www.linux-tutorial.info\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"http:\/\/www.linux-tutorial.info\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fcomments&post=175"}],"version-history":[{"count":1,"href":"http:\/\/www.linux-tutorial.info\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/pages\/175\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":568,"href":"http:\/\/www.linux-tutorial.info\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/pages\/175\/revisions\/568"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"http:\/\/www.linux-tutorial.info\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fmedia&parent=175"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}